As the 28th Conference of the Parties (COP28) to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, commonly referred to as the 'COP 28 Climate Summit,' concludes its discussions, a landmark commitment has emerged. A collaborative effort involving 123 nations1 has resulted in the Global Renewables and Energy Efficiency Pledge. This ambitious initiative outlines the objective of tripling the world's renewable energy capacity by 2030 and doubling advancements in energy efficiency. Notably, among the 118 signatories, Turkey has not yet committed to this transformative pledge. This raises a crucial question: Why is Turkey, a participant in the Paris Convention, hesitant to join the global effort aimed at tripling renewable energy capacity by 2030?
To gain a deeper insight into Turkey's position on global climate goals, it is crucial to explore the historical context of Turkey's engagement in international agreements addressing climate change and the challenges the country is currently confronting.
Historical Background
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ("UNFCCC") signed in 1992 is the first international legal document directly referring to climate change and has been signed by 1982 states to this date. Since 1992, the Parties to the UNFCCC have sought to reach a consensus on implementing measures to stabilise greenhouse gas ("GHG"), concentrations to avoid, and eventually ceasing "dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system". Under UNFCCC, the parties' obligations are determined based on their categorisation as developing or developed countries with reference to its Annexes. UNFCCC has two annexes, namely Annex I and Annex II, each compromising a list of countries. Parties listed in Annex I are industrialised countries that were members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ("OECD") in 1992 and countries whose economies were, at the time of signing the UNFCC, undergoing the process of transition to a market economy, such as the Russian Federation ("the EIT Parties"). On the other hand, the Parties listed in Annex II are the same OECD members listed in Annex I, minus the EIT Parties. Developing countries and small island countries are not listed in UNFCCC's annexes. Under the UNFCCC, developed countries listed under Annex II are obliged to provide financial resources, such as technology transfers and financial support, to developing countries and the EIT Parties in their efforts to fight against climate change.3
At the COP's 3rd session held in Kyoto between the dates 1-10 December 19974, Turkey submitted a request for the review of its classification in Annex I and II. In this request, Turkey outlined the key reasons supporting its designation as a developing country, including its reliance on energy imports, the disparity in social and economic development compared to developed nations, and its relatively low contribution to global greenhouse gas emissions, notably falling below the average of Annex I countries.
The Kyoto Protocol, adopted in 1997 and effective from 2005, serves as the initial practical agreement under the UNFCCC. At the COP's 3rd session held in Kyoto, the Annex I countries (i.e., developed countries and EIT Parties) accepted the Kyoto Protocol, which set certain binding emission reduction targets for the 2008-2012 period, applicable only to them. The Kyoto Protocol also has an Annex B in which each Annex I country's commitment for national or joint reduction targets for GHG is listed for two different Commitment Periods, the first from 2008 to 2012, and the second from 2013 to 2020.5 The First Commitment Period (2008-2012) obligated Annex I countries to reduce total emissions by at least 5% from the 1990 level. Following Kyoto, the parties convened in Doha to establish the Doha Amendment, which revised the binding emission reduction targets for the Second Commitment Period, 2012-2020. The parties listed in Annex B were mandated to reduce their emissions by at least 18% in 2020 compared to 1990, differing from the commitments of the First Commitment Period. However, the Doha Amendment entered into force on 31 December 2020, at which point the period for which it set forth guidelines had already passed, therefore its entry into force held merely a symbolic value as the Second Commitment Period was only formally accepted. Consequently, the Kyoto Protocol, as the first operational tool of the UNFCCC, has fulfilled its purpose6.
Turkey signed the UNFCCC on 24 May 2004. At the time of signing, Turkey was initially included in Annex I and Annex II of the UNFCCC due to its OECD membership. However, since signing the UNFCCC, Turkey has consistently requested, through the COP to the UNFCCC, to be excluded from Annex I and II and, ultimately, to be classified as a developing country. Therefore, even if Turkey is an Annex I party, Turkey is not listed in Annex B of the Kyoto Protocol and thus has no obligations regarding the reduction of carbon emissions stemming from the Kyoto Protocol or the Doha Amendment.
Following the Kyoto Agreement, Turkey maintained its position of being recognized as a developing country under the UNFCCC. However, it adjusted its request to some extent. In its revised request, Turkey aimed to be excluded from Annex II but agreed to stay in Annex I. Turkey's request also included an accompanying note indicating that Turkey should enjoy favourable conditions within the "common but differentiated responsibilities", taking into consideration Turkey's difficulties stemming from the fact that it is at an early stage of industrialisation. Finally, Turkey's proposal to amend the Annexes of UNFCCC was considered at the COP's 7th session, and accordingly, Turkey was deleted from Annex II but remained in Annex I with a note stating that Turkey would be "in a situation different from that of other Parties included in Annex I". Only after that, Turkey became a party to the UNFCCC as the 189th Party on 24 May 20047. Nevertheless, despite its removal from Annex II, there remained a risk of Turkey being labelled or classified as a developed country. This risk stemmed from the ambiguity in the note appended to Annex I, as it did not explicitly designate Turkey as a developing country.
Paris Agreement
The Paris Agreement was established and opened for signature at the 21st session of the COP held in 2015. The Paris Agreement forms a milestone for climate regime due to its importance as the first-ever legally binding8 climate change agreement, despite the lack of sanctions applicable to the parties that fail to achieve the limitations of GHGs set forth therein. The most significant target of the Paris Agreement is to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees, preferably to 1.5 degrees Celsius, as compared to pre-industrial levels9.
Turkey signed the Paris Agreement on 22 April 2016 yet did not ratify it until October 2021. The delay in Turkey's ratification can be attributed to its proposal to amend the list of parties in Annex I to the UNFCCC, specifically by removing Turkey's name. This proposal was discussed during the 24th session of the COP in 2018. In the proposal, Turkey reaffirmed its stance as a developing country, emphasizing that it could enhance its efforts by having improved access to climate finance and technology transfer mechanisms as a Non-Annex I country.10.
Despite the uncertainty of its categorisation, Turkey ratified the Paris Agreement on 11 October 202111, after signing it years ago. Together with its ratification, Turkey declared that it would "implement the Paris Agreement as a developing country and in the scope of her nationally determined contribution statements, provided that the Agreement and its mechanisms do not prejudice her right to economic and social development"12.
Nevertheless, Turkey faces substantial social and economic challenges in the context of its energy policy, given its status as a developing country. Primarily, the country heavily relies on other countries for its energy policy. Transitioning to cleaner energy sources such as wind or solar poses a formidable challenge that requires collaborative efforts to address technical and economic hurdles. Insufficient investments in energy infrastructure hinder improvements in power generation, transmission, and distribution capacities. Additionally, striking a balance between economic considerations and environmental stewardship, ensuring mutual benefits for all, remains a significant concern for Turkey.
In this context, Turkey stands out as the only country within Annex I that has been accepted with conditions distinct from those of the other Annex I Parties, as decided by the Conference of the Parties. Overall, Turkey is dedicated to enhancing investments in renewable energy; however, it faces challenges. This is the reason Turkey seeks a distinct status, and the reluctance to sign the new pledge in COP 28 is rooted in this perspective.
Footnotes
1. https://www.cop28.com/en/global-renewables-and-energy-efficiency-pledge
2. https://unfccc.int/process/parties-non-party-stakeholders/parties-convention-and-observer-states
3. https://unfccc.int/parties-observers
4. https://www.mfa.gov.tr/bm-iklim-degisikligi-cerceve-sozlesmesi.tr.mfa
5. https://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol
6. https://www.mfa.gov.tr/kyoto-protokolu.tr.mfa
7. https://iklim.csb.gov.tr/bmidcs-ve-turkiye-i-4376
8. https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement: Even if this Paris Agreement is legally binding for the Parties, there is no legal enforcement foreseen on the Paris Agreement. It is a binding agreement because it brings all nations into a common cause to undertake ambitious efforts to combat climate change and adapt to its effects. The specific climate goals are politically encouraged, rather than being legally binding.
9. https://unfccc.int/files/meetings/paris_nov_2015/application/pdf/paris_agreement_english_.pdf
10. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/inf2.pdf
11. https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVII-7-d&chapter=27&clang=_en#EndDec
12. https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVII-7-d&chapter=27&clang=_en#EndDec
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